The Legality Of Euthanasia In Today’s Society Essay Example for Free

The Legality Of Euthanasia In Today’s Society Essay Introduction This work focuses on the legality of euthanasia in today’s society. In the sequel various case laws have been discussed. In several countries terminally ill patients are clamouring for euthanasia in order to put a stop to their torment. There is however a great difficulty involved in obtaining death. The doctors and the courts are not taking cognizance of patients’ requests for euthanasia, but are deciding on their own as to which patient should be killed and when such a patient should be killed. This death is generally by means of withdrawing life support systems. There have been several demands for legalizing voluntary euthanasia and physician assisted suicide. Such demands have occurred all over the world. However, the European Court of Justice decided in the year 2002, that no EU Citizen had the right to die. Similarly, the US Supreme Court opined that no US Citizen had the right to die. This has resulted in individual countries having to deal with this problem on their own and a certain measure of acceptance is evident in the Netherlands, Japan, Oregon and Columbia. In general, two arguments are put forward in support of euthanasia and physician assisted suicide, namely, the mitigation of the intolerable pain and discomfort caused by terminal illness; and to enhance individual freedom. These two factors are taken into consideration by the government in order to legalize euthanasia, for example, in the Netherlands, where suffering has to be accompanied by a recurring request for mercy killing. Euthanasia is the process of bringing about an easy death. It refers to acts, which terminate or shorten life painlessly in order to end suffering where there is no prospect of a cure. There are only two choices available to patients with fatal illness, either a slow death involving unrelieved suffering or euthanasia. Terminally ill patients suffer from depression or a false sense of unimportance, which tends to affect their judgment. Their decision-making may also be influenced by confusion or dementia, which could be lessened with suitable treatment. It is very important to remember that, patients who on admission say let me die usually after effective relief from symptoms are most grateful that their request was not acceded to. Terminally ill patients are also adjustable to a high level of disability as they value what little quality of life they have left. The legal position in respect of selective non-treatment was dealt with by the House of Lords in Airedale NHS Trust v Bland[1], in which the applicant, a health authority sought an order to withdraw life-sustaining treatment and provide medical treatment that would enable a peaceful and dignified death with the minimum of pain. The family of the patient supported this application. The respondent, 21-year-old Anthony Bland, had been in a persistently vegetative state for more than three years and though not brain dead, he had no cognitive function. The unanimous judgment of all the doctors who examined him was that there was no hope of a cure. Under these circumstances, it was thought suitable to stop further treatment. The judge granted this order, which was confirmed by both the Court of Appeals and the House of Lords. The latter held that a doctor, who has to care for a patient who is unable to indicate his willingness to be treated, need not extend the patients life regardless of the quality thereof. In F v West Berkshire Health Authority[2] the Court held that medical treatment and artificial feeding, could be discontinued if the patients best interests were served. To determine what course of action would further the best interests of the patient, the court used the test laid down in Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee[3], which required the acquiescence of a large, informed and responsible group of medical practitioners. As the termination of life-supporting treatment in this case was in accordance with the criteria set out in a discussion paper by the British Medical Association[4], these â€Å"criteria [were] a) Rehabilitative efforts for at least 6 months after the injury; b) the diagnosis of irreversible PVS should only be considered confirmed after 12 months; c) the diagnosis should be confirmed by two other independent doctors; d) the wishes of the family should be respected[5].† The court found that there had been compliance with the Bolam requirement. In this case Lord Mustill highlighted the need for legislation relating to euthanasia stating that, â€Å"The whole matter cries out for exploration in depth by Parliament and then for the establishment by legislation not only of a new set of ethically and intellectually consistent rules, distinct from the general criminal law, but also of a sound procedural framework within which the rules can be applied to individual cases[6].† In R (Pretty) v. Director of Public Prosecutions[7], Lord Steyn restated that change of the law on assisted suicide should be carried out by the legislature rather than by judges.  Ã‚   Case law demonstrates the paradox that results from the current law.   As Dame Butler-Sloss P. emphasised in B v An NHS Hospital Trust[8], a competent patient may refuse any form of medical treatment, even life-prolonging medical treatment, for whatever reason.   B was able to insist that the ventilator, which kept her alive, was to be disconnected. Nevertheless, Diane Pretty who was able to make a competent and autonomous choice about the timing and manner of her death, was unable to apply this decision due to a ban on assisted suicide and consequently died in a way that she had tried to avoid. Moreover, Bland, was unable to make any choice, therefore his existence was held to justify the withdrawal of artificial feeding resulting in his death. In Re J (a minor)[9] J, an infant had serious brain damage and large areas of his brain were filled with fluid instead of tissue. This resulted in convulsions and stoppage of breathing. He had been placed on a ventilator twice and it was certain that he would develop spastic quadriplegia. Speech would be denied to him for ever and his life span was considered to be very short. In respect of his being linked to a ventilator in the future, two medical practitioners certified that it would not be in Js interest to be ventilated again. Accordingly, the court issued an order in agreement with these medical experts. An argument was raised against this court order, but the Court of Appeal rejected it and observed that the court could not issue a life-ending order unless it was absolutely certain that the quality of the childs subsequent life would be intolerable to the child and demonstrably so awful that in effect the child must be condemned to die. Both AVE or active voluntary euthanasia and PAS or physician assisted suicide do take place. The Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill[10], which permits doctors to resort to AVE under strictly limited circumstances, was recently introduced in the House of Lords. The extant Case law confirms that the best interest model of decision-making is concerned not only with the physical well-being of the patient, but also the psychological, moral, ethical and social interests. By implication, the non – transparent nature of the best interests test implies that it is vulnerable to exploitation. First, there is a danger that the values of the decision-maker may prevail over those of the patient leading to paternalistic decisions.   Second, references to the wider interests of the patient could bring about a masked development of third party interests. Moreover, this approach opposes the spirit of the Mental Capacity Act 2005[11], which emphasizes the promotion of self-determination for adults who lack capacity. It permits anticipatory treatment decisions to be made before the patient becomes incapacitated and it allows proxy decision-makers to decide on behalf of incapacitated patients. Causing a patients death by means of a lethal injection differs from causing the death of a patient by refusing to provide treatment. The same line of pro-euthanasia argument is also constructed through a confusion of means and ends. This argument states that when death is the inevitable outcome, the means used to achieve such death, whether by withdrawing life support systems or by administering a lethal injection, are morally irrelevant and should therefore be legally irrelevant[12]. This argument is unacceptable and the means that bring abut a person’s death should necessarily matter not only morally but also legally. It is essential to understand that the issue is not one of dying but rather of how a person dies. The moral intuition of any person states that there are essential differences between letting nature take its course, which also includes the withdrawal of life-support systems and treatment, and the outright killing of a dying person. Advocates of euthanasia contend that that the manner in which a person dies should be a private matter, whereas those who are opposed to legalizing euthanasia state that such arguments are fallacious. These opponents of euthanasia strongly subscribe to the view that every persons death necessarily involves others, including healthcare professionals and that it also includes values of society and symbols. Furthermore, wherever euthanasia takes place, the manner in which death occurs will not be restricted to the patient’s self-determination and personal beliefs because of the fact that euthanasia is an act that requires two people to make it possible and a complicit society to make it acceptable[13]. The very concept of legalization of physician assisted death has been subjected to a great deal of debate with regard to its benefits and disadvantages. These debates had been totally based on theory and hypothesis. In this context in the year 1977, the Supreme Court of the USA addressed this subject and stated that â€Å"perhaps we should wait [on the question of legalization] until we know more.† [14] In the written evidence submitted by Professor Margaret, she stated that at present there was five years of empirical knowledge in respect of the effects that the legalization of euthanasia had produced in the state of Oregon. Furthermore, there was available an even more detailed amount of empirical data from the Netherlands covering a sixteen year period in respect of euthanasia. She contended that these data sets clearly support the claim that the legal process can be controlled effectively, with the result that abuse of euthanasia does not occur and if at all it does take place, such instances are very infrequent. In the state of Oregon no incident of substantive abuse of euthanasia had been reported and the incidents reported in the Netherlands are practically none. The Legislation in respect of euthanasia is closely related to essential and crucial enhancements in palliative and hospice care[15]. The act of committing suicide has been considered to be possible only for a person endowed with a considerable amount of courage, but the relevant scientific literature considers such an act to be the act of a mentally imbalanced person. Moreover, it considers suicide to be an act of self destruction by a person who lacks lucid thinking and who is a lunatic. Similarly patients who request physician assisted death are usually those who have been suffering from either severe depression or psychological imbalances[16]. The Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill was introduced in order to legalize, in respect of people who are terminally ill, who are mentally capable and whose suffering is unbearable, medically assisted death or, in instances where the patients are physically incapable of carrying out the concluding deed that would end their life, voluntary euthanasia in order to end their life. A scrutiny was made of the principle on which the Bill was to be based as well as the practical outcome of the bill if it were to become law. Subsequently the experiences of countries that had formulated legislation to permit euthanasia were examined in depth and then an analysis was performed in respect of public opinion in the United Kingdom with regard to euthanasia. The principle of personal autonomy constitutes the basis for this Bill. The supporters of this bill strongly contend that people who are terminally ill should be given the right, conditioned by appropriate safeguards, to obtain medical assistance in order to die in the same manner that patients, whether terminally ill or otherwise, are permitted by right to decline life-prolonging treatment. However, opponents of this bill are of the opinion that these two situations cannot be compared and that ensuring safeguards would not be feasible and that intentional killing, regardless of the reason, should not be permitted. These opponents strongly resist any change to the law in this context[17]. Further, their Lordships held that at the practical level there were opposing views regarding the possible effects of the Bill in providing help to some people or in causing harm to others. In this matter the General Medical Council communicated to their Lordships that â€Å"a change in the law to allow physician-assisted dying would have profound implications for the role and responsibilities of doctors and their relationships with patients†[18]. This bill grants immunity to medical staff members, who comply with its terms, from prosecution for breach of professional oath or affirmation. Moreover this bill makes it possible for the terminally-ill patients to obtain such pain-relief as they require in order to alleviate the symptoms of their illness[19].   Unfortunately, this bill was defeated in the House of Lords[20]. Several examples can be cited of persons who have pleaded for euthanasia to be permitted in respect of their near and dear ones. One such instance is that of Bill Starr, whose wife Maureen – Anne was suffering from Kirkby Alzheimer’s disease.   Bill wanted his wife to be put out of her misery by resorting to euthanasia. This was due to the fact that his wife Maureen-Anne had drastically worsened in her health, which was a cause of anguish for both of them. Bill wanted his wife to die with dignity. He also stated that â€Å"If this was an animal you would be able to put it out of its misery and the same should apply to humans. Her brain is shrinking and it is just downhill all the way from now. There needs to be a change in the law to allow euthanasia to go ahead for all those who need it[21]. Madeleine Zeffa Biver’s son asked the court to prosecute those who had helped her to commit suicide in Spain. Madeleine had written to the El Pais newspaper in which she expressed her desire to die with dignity. She stated that â€Å"Please give me a glass of water, wine or whiskey†¦I want to die with my head held high†¦This is not a crime. It is not a murder.† Despite assisting suicide being a crime in Spain, The Right to a Dignified Death group asked some of its members to be present while she died and contended that â€Å"there was nothing criminal about offering moral support to someone who wished to kill themselves[22].† Eighty percent of the people in the United Kingdom are of the opinion that the law should respect the wishes of terminally ill patients in pain and permit a doctor to end their life. In the UK it has been observed that under certain circumstances, euthanasia is acceptable to the public. This has been the finding of the British Social Attitudes Survey. Research conducted for the survey indicates that backing for voluntary euthanasia depends strongly on whether someone is terminally ill, on levels of suffering and on how death occurs. There is much greater support for a doctor being permitted to end someones life rather than a relative doing so, or for suicide assisted by a doctor. However, public support for euthanasia is lacking or is negligible in cases where an individual does not face death as a result of their condition. This survey was conducted after the previous year’s attempt to change the law failed. The conclusion reached by the Survey was that The disjuncture between the current law on assisted dying and majority public opinion thus seems unlikely to simply disappear. Pressure to mount further attempts to change the law in some ways at least looks set to continue[23]. When a physician induces easy death to terminally ill patients by administering lethal drugs, then such a process is known as Euthanasia. Physician assisted suicide takes place when a doctor intentionally helps a person to commit suicide by providing such a patient with drugs for self-administration, at that person’s voluntary and competent request. This act puts an end to or shortens the life span of patients who suffer from incurable diseases. Patients with terminal illness can either undergo a slow and ghastly death with unbearably sufferings or they can die with dignity and without pain by resorting to euthanasia. It becomes a permissible option when comfort care ceases to be effective for the terminally or incurably ill[24]. The term comfort care refers to palliative and supportive treatment used in hospice programs and elsewhere. This comfort care has to be made the standard medical treatment for patients who have rejected therapeutic or life-sustaining treatment or who are suffering from a terminal illness. Comfort care relieves symptoms, improves the quality and meaning of the patient’s remaining life and eases the process of dying. Physician assisted death becomes a legitimate option only as a treatment of last resort and after customary procedures for comfort care have been found substandard by competent patients in the context of their own situation and values[25]. In the cases of Vacco v Quill and Washington v Glucksberg, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the constitution had not granted any right to physician-assisted suicide; its decision clearly approved the use of intensive palliative care and seemed to permit experimentation at the state level so that this â€Å"earnest and profound debate† could continue[26]. The injury suffered by actor Christopher Reeve[27] and his response to his condition has been the subject of numerous news stories. The public sees a man who previously enjoyed a physically active lifestyle, but who now relies on a respirator to breathe, and on other people to provide for his every physical need. Rick Hansen[28] and Teny Fox[29] are examples of people who have not only contributed to the society in significant ways, but who have also captured the imagination of the public in their courageous journeys to help others suffering from spinal cord injuries and cancer respectively. The actions of Dr. Jack Kevorkian[30], a doctor dedicated to aiding the terminally ill in their chase for death, repeatedly places this issue about the value of life before the public and the courts in the United States. Flach[31] defines mental health in terms of resilience. He proposes that when we experience disturbance in our lives, it is through resilience that we are able to move through our experiences in good mental health. He argues that it is how well we are able to integrate each new experience and circumstance into our lives that leads to successful adaptation throughout our lives. In her book, Resilient Adults: Overcoming a Cruel Past, Gina O’ Connell Higgins[32] examines the lives of forty individuals who have suffered cruelty and abuse in their childhood, but who have led purposeful, successful adult lives. O’ Connell Higgins identifies attachment to a parental surrogate as an important factor in the development of self-esteem in the subjects she studies. Research on resilience had shown that resilience is significant in the lives of many individuals suffering extreme trauma from abuse and other circumstances it will also contribute to the well being of an individual facing physical pain or disability. Certain other behaviors and attitudes also contribute to positive adjustment to chronic pain. Kelly and Clifford[33] studied the impact of narrative group therapy on subjects with the chronic pain of Fibromyalgia. They found that this therapy allowed the subjects â€Å"the opportunity to re-examine and restory [sic] their lives, to not get stuck in repeating the story of helplessness, and to harness their own resources† (p. 276). It is an established fact that people are able to assess the possible threat in the event of any crisis and they can balance their ability to cope with the crisis or event based on their analysis of the amount of threat involved[34]. At this juncture, a relationship between coping up with helplessness and increase in the degree of disability in chronic pain patients was found by Lenhart and Ashby[35]. Byrant[36] has propounded a four-factor model of perceived control that avoids negative events, tackles negative events, strives to achiever positive outcomes and values positive events. His theory is that not only the terrible illness or disability but also the patients’ perception of their ability to cope that has great importance. Other forms of interventions have been found helpful for people coping with diseases including cancer. Researchers reported that Interpersonal Therapy techniques focusing on interpersonal relationships, role transitions, and grief reactions were beneficial for such patients[37]. Julia Faucett[38] studied the effects of chronic pain on social supports, family relationships and incidences of depression. Her study showed that the negative response of family and friends to the patient’s pain significantly contributed to depression. Although euthanasia proponents argue that pain validates the right for Physician-assisted suicide, research suggests that the link between the desire for suicide and pain is much more complicated than a one to one correlation. This link between depression and suicidal ideation is commonly found in cancer patients[39]. It not chronic pain, in isolation, that leads to a desire for Physician Assisted Suicide. This process is determined by social, familial and personal issues and several studies have revealed that â€Å"the measurement tools intended to determine the symptoms for cancer patients, and their entire family, should be so developed as to help caregivers to attend to the needs of cancer patients and their families during the course of the illness[40].† Fife[41] found that the meaning individuals give to having cancer affected how they dealt with the disease in their lives. She found that the more social support patients perceived they have had from family, fiends, and medical professionals the more positive meanings the patients had regarding the impact of the illness on their lives. In Aronsons study of quality of life in persons with multiple sclerosis and their caregivers, she concludes that Determining those elements that have an impact upon an individuals quality of life may help inform decision-making in the planning of interventions, treatments, and services aimed at enhancing quality of life[42]. Conclusion Physician assisted death is a one time process and it should be made available to the patients suffering from terminal illnesses to reduce their suffering and permit them to exercise their rights to self-determination. Chances of indiscriminate usage of this device are high. To encounter this problem a proper and meticulously designed mechanism has to be implemented to avoid abuse of this provision. It is therefore essential to legalize physician-assisted death, but with sufficient protections to shield susceptible patients[43]. Societal opinion regarding the morality of suicide has been ambiguous since historical times. In the early Roman and Greek civilizations, suicide was of frequent occurrence. With the development of Christianity, suicide was deemed to be a sin. However, in other cultures, suicide was accorded the status of honourable death. Hara-kiri was a private ceremonial form of suicide resorted to by the Japanese in order to safeguard their honour. In the Netherlands, physician assisted suicide is permitted by law. In the Netherlands legislation was passed in 1993, which exempted physicians from prosecution if they had assisted in suicide, provided they had adhered to the procedures prescribed by the law[44]. Bibliography    Alter, C.L., Fleishman, S.B., Kornblith, A.B., Holland, J.C., Biano, D., Levenson, R., Vinciguerra, V., Rai, K.R. (1996). Supportive telephone intervention for patients receiving chemotherapy. Psychosomatics, 37, 425-431. Aronson, Kristan J. (1997). Quality of life among persons with multiple sclerosis and their caregivers. Neurology, 48, 74-80.    Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Act 2005. Parliamentary copyright House of Lords 2005. HL Bill 3654/1. Airedale NHS Trust v Bland. (1993) 1 ALL ER 821 (CA). Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee (1957) 2 ALL ER 118; (1957) 1 ELR 582. Burt RA. 1997, The Supreme Court speaks-not assisted suicide but a constitutional right to palliative care. N Engl J Med.; 337: 1234-6. B v An NHS Hospital Trust (2002) 2 All ER 449. Byrant, Fred B. (1989). A four-factor model of perceived control: avoiding, coping, obtaining, and savoring. Journal of Personality, 57, 773-797. Callahan D. When self-determination runs amok. Hastings Center Report 1992; 22(2): 52-55. Davey, G.C.L. (1993). A comparison of three cognitive appraisal strategies: the role of threat devaluation in problem-focused coping. Personality and Individual Differences. 14, 535-546. Faucett, Julia A. (1994). Depression in painful chronic disorders: the role of pain and conflict about pain. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 520-526. Fife, Betsy L. (1995). The measurement of meaning in illness. Social Science Medicine, 40, 1021-1028. Flach, Frederic. (1988) Resilience: Discovering a New Strength at Times of Stress. New York, New York, New York: Fawcett Columbine. F v West Berkshire Health Authority. (1989) 2 ALL ER 545; (1990) 2 AC 1. Hansen, Rick Taylor, Jim. (1987). Rick Hansen: Man in Motion. Vancouver: Douglas McIntyre. House of Lords: Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill [HL] Volume I: Report Ordered to be printed 3 March 2005 and published 4 April 2005 Published by the Authority of the House of Lords Husbands euthanasia plea. January 4, 2007. Ashfield Observer.  © 2007 Johnston Publishing Limited. Document ASHFOB0020070105e31400004. Retrieved from http://global.factiva.com/ha/default.aspx Kelly, Patricia and Clifford, Patrick. (1997). Coping with chronic pain: assessing narrative approaches. Social Work, 42, 266-277. Kiser, Jerry D. January 1996. Counselors and the Legalization of Physician – Assisted Suicide. Counseling and Values. v 40. n2 ISSN: 01607960. p. 127-31. Lenhart, R.S., and Ashby, J.S. (1996). Cognitive coping strategies and coping modes in relation to chronic pain disability. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation counseling. 27, 15-18. Massie, M.J., Gagnon, P., Holland, J. (1994). Depression and suicide in patients with cancer. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 9, 325-340. Mental Capacity Act 2005, ISBN 0  10  540905  7. O’ Connell Higgins, Gina. (1994). Resilient Adults: Overcoming a Cruel Past. San Francisco Ca: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Pfeifer, J.E., Brigham, J.C. Robinson, T. (1996). Euthanasia on trial: examining public attitudes toward nonphysician-assisted death. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 119-129. Quill TE, 1993. Death and dignity. New York: W.W. Norton. R (Pretty) v. Director of Public Prosecutions (2002) UKHRR 97, (2002) 35 EHRR 1, (2002) 2 FLR 45. Re J (a minor) (1990) 3 ALL ER 930. Reeve, Christopher. (1998). Still Me. New York: Random House Publishing. Regulating Physician-Assisted Death, 1994, retrieved 25 January 2007 from https://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/331/2/119. Scrivener, Leslie. (1981). Terry Fox: His Story. Toronto: McClelland Stewart.    The Assisted Dying for Terminally Ill Bill 2005. The National Council for Palliative Care. Retrieved from http://www.ncpc.org.uk/ethics/assisted_dying.html Tremlett, Giles. Euthanasia row: The colourful life and controversial death of Jacques Brels muse: Judge investigates sons claim Madeleine was helped to kill herself. January 19, 2007. Madrid. The Guardian  © Copyright 2007. Vachon, Mary, Kristjanson, Linda, Higginson, Irene (1995). Psychosocial issues in palliative care: the patient, the family, and the process and outcome of care. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 10, 142-150. Ward, Lucy and Carvel, John. Euthanasia: Four out of five want to give doctors right to end life of terminally ill patients in pain. January 4, 2007. The Guardian  © Copyright 2007. Written Evidence, Memorandum by Professor Margaret Battin of Utah University, USA, House of Lords, Select Committee on the Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill, Volume III: Evidence – Individual Submissions. [1] Airedale NHS Trust v Bland. (1993) 1 ALL ER 821 (CA). [2] F v West Berkshire Health Authority. (1989) 2 ALL ER 545; (1990) 2 AC 1. [3]Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee (1957) 2 ALL ER 118; (1957) 1 ELR 582. [4] British Medical Association Treatment of Patients in persistent Vegitative State. [5] Ibid. [6]Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee (1957) 2 ALL ER 118; (1957) 1 ELR 582. [7]R (Pretty) v. Director of Public Prosecutions (2002) UKHRR 97, (2002) 35 EHRR 1, (2002) 2 FLR 45. [8] B v An NHS Hospital Trust (2002) 2 All ER 449. [9] Re J (a minor) (1990) 3 ALL ER 930. [10] Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Act 2005. Parliamentary copyright House of Lords 2005. HL Bill 36   Ã‚   54/1. [11] Mental Capacity Act 2005, ISBN 0  10  540905  7. [12] Callahan D. When self-determination runs amok. Hastings Center Report 1992; 22(2): 52-55. [13] Ibid. [14] Written Evidence, Memorandum by Professor Margaret Battin of Utah University, USA, House of Lords, Select Committee on the Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill, Volume III: Evidence – Individual Submissions. [15] Ibid. [16] Written Evidence, Memorandum by Professor Margaret Battin of Utah University, USA, House of Lords, Select Committee on the Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill, Volume III: Evidence – Individual Submissions. [17] House of Lords: Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill [HL] Volume I: Report Ordered to be printed 3 March 2005 and published 4 April 2005 Published by the Authority of the House of Lords London [18] House of Lords: Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill [HL] Volume I: Report Ordered to be printed 3 March 2005 and published 4 April 2005 Published by the Authority of the House of Lords London [19] Ibid. [20] The Assisted Dying for Terminally Ill Bill 2005. The National Council for Palliative Care. Retrieved from http://www.ncpc.org.uk/ethics/assisted_dying.html [21] Husbands euthanasia plea. January 4, 2007. Ashfield Observer.  © 2007 Johnston Publishing Limited. Document ASHFOB0020070105e31400004. Retrieved from http://global.factiva.com/ha/default.aspx [22] Tremlett, Giles. Euthanasia row: The colourful life and controversial death of Jacques Brels muse: Judge investigates sons claim Madeleine was helped to kill herself. January 19, 2007.   Madrid. The Guardian P. 23.  © Copyright 2007. The Guardian. [23] Ward, Lucy and Carvel, John. Euthanasia: Four out of five want to give doctors right to end life of terminally ill patients in pain. January 4, 2007. The Guardian 9.  © Copyright 2007. [24] Quill TE, 1993. Death and dignity. New York: W.W. Norton. [25] Ibid. [26] Burt RA. 1997, The Supreme Court speaks-not assisted suicide but a constitutional right to palliative care. N Engl J Med.; 337: 1234-6. [27] Reeve, Christopher. (1998). Still Me. New York: Random House Publishing. [28] Hansen, Rick Taylor, Jim. (1987). Rick Hansen: Man in Motion. Vancouver: Douglas McIntyre. [29] Scrivener, Leslie. (1981). Terry Fox: His Story. Toronto: McClelland Stewart. [30] Pfeifer, J.E., Brigham, J.C. Robinson, T. (1996).   Euthanasia on trial: examining public attitudes toward nonphysician-assisted death. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 119-129. [31] Flach, Frederic. (1988) Resilience: Discovering a New Strength at Times of Stress. New York, New York, New York: Fawcett Columbine. [32] O’ Connell Higgins, Gina. (1994). Resilient Adults: Overcoming a Cruel Past. San Francisco Ca: Jossey-Bass Publishers. [33] Kelly, Patricia and Clifford, Patrick. (1997). Coping with chronic pain: assessing narrative approaches. Social Work, 42, 266-277. [34] Davey, G.C.L. (1993). A comparison of three cognitive appraisal strategies: the role of threat devaluation in problem-focused coping. Personality and Individual Differences. 14, 535-546. [35] Lenhart, R.S., and Ashby, J.S. (1996). Cognitive coping strategies and coping modes in relation to chronic pain disability. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation counseling. 27, 15-18. [36] Byrant, Fred B. (1989). A four-factor model of perceived control: avoiding, coping, obtaining, and savoring. Journal of Personality, 57, 773-797. [37] Alter, C.L., Fleishman, S.B., Kornblith, A.B., Holland, J.C., Biano, D., Levenson, R., Vinciguerra, V., Rai, K.R. (1996). Supportive telephone intervention for patients receiving chemotherapy. Psychosomatics, 37, 425-431. [38] Faucett, Julia A. (1994). Depression in painful chronic disorders: the role of pain and conflict about pain. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 520-526. [39] Massie, M.J., Gagnon, P., Holland, J. (1994). Depression and suicide in patients with cancer. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 9, 325-340. [40] Vachon, Mary, Kristjanson, Linda, Higginson, Irene (1995). Psychosocial issues in palliative care: the patient, the family, and the process and outcome of care. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 10, 142-150. [41] Fife, Betsy L. (1995). The measurement of meaning in illness. Social Science Medicine, 40, 1021-1028. [42] Aronson, Kristan J. (1997). Quality of life among persons with multiple sclerosis and their caregivers. Neurology, 48, 74-80. [43] Regulating Physician-Assisted Death, 1994, retrieved 25 January 2007 from https://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/331/2/119. [44] Kiser, Jerry D. January 1996. Counselors and the Legalization of Physician – Assisted Suicide. Counseling and Values. ISSN: 01607960. v 40. n2 p. 127-31.

Project Management Gantt And Schedules Construction Essay

Project Management Gantt And Schedules Construction Essay Project Management is a huge subject and without it, construction or engineering projects as we know them today simply could not be undertaken. Project management has needed to adapt as the industry has grown and methods have developed particular in the last century, which has seen possibly the greatest transformation of all. Some aspects of Project management have had to be adapted with this whereas others have led the way to change, thanks to innovative thinking from the likes of Fayol and Maslow. The successful management of a civil engineering project depends upon a number of factors. Planning, Organisation, Communication, Decisiveness are all subcategories that need managed. It is imperative that the right procedures are put in place at the start of the project. Good project management will allow for excellent organisation and tracking; better control and use of resources; reduced complexity and early identification of problems leading to quicker correction. A project manager should have a sound body of knowledge that will include the nine core areas of scope, time, cost, risk, integration, quality, procurement, communications and human resources. In addition to a project engineers professional judgement they will need to call upon the necessary tools in order to manage a project successfully, which could include past or similar tasks undertaken or specific management tools, such as charts and schedules. History of Scheduling Gantt charts were developed by mechanical engineer, Henry Laurence Gantt in the early 20th century as a visual tool to show scheduled and actual progress of projects. Although commonplace, today the Gantt chart was fundamental change in the way projects were managed at the time. Gantt charts were first used on high profile construction projects like the Hoover Dam (1931) and the interstate highway network (1956). Complex network diagrams called PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) charts were invented as part of the Polaris missile submarine program in 1955. Booz-Allen Hamilton worked with the U.S. Navy to create these charts and schedules. The Critical Path Method (CPM) was developed by the DuPont corporation in 1957, to deal with a variety of tasks and numerous interactions at many points in time. Arguably, the evolution of modern project management is a direct consequence of the need to make effective use of the data generated by the schedulers in an attempt to manage and control the critical path. The Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) was initially developed by the U.S. defence department, as an advancement of the PERT system noted above. In 1968, it was issued as a military standard, which required the use of work breakdown structures across the U.S. defence department. The standard has been revised and updated over the years and is still in use today. Project Installing new steel beams throughout an existing masonry building and adding a new floor. The project will start on January the 14th and is to be completed by Friday the 29th of March. List of Tasks I have assumed the process of this project management starting from the design phase. Existing masonry strength investigated/tested for ability to take loads Building survey to set out the masonry piers and levels Steelwork design required based on loads to be imposed /spans between piers Timber floor joists and edge restraints designed (with timber plywood deck to act as structural diaphragm). Fabrication drawings completed and issued for tender Steel Tender period Fabricator chosen and contract signed for steelwork Fabrication commences Method statement to complete (Health and Safety) Method statement approved by CDM co-ordinator Erection of scaffolding around piers Existing general masonry repair to piers Masonry removal for padstone and bearing end of beams Padstone installation (Pouring of the in-situ concrete padstone) Concrete padstone curing Ordering of steel installation equipment (crane rig or cherry pickers) Steel delivery to site Steel erection and fixing Timber cut on site Timber floor joists fitted Plywood cut to size Timber edge restraints fixed Plywood decking fitted. Scaffolding around piers removed Project handed over to client for fit out As built drawings records sent to Building Control Project Completion. The importance of getting this engineering aspect of the project completed on time (using affective and accurate scheduling) will allow the decking to be fitted and make the floor usable, enabling the fit out to commence on time and without the need for expensive temporary platforms. Estimated resources and time periods for the tasks Task resources for personnel- abbreviations for use in tables, charts etc. PM Project Manager SU Surveyor SE Structural Engineer FB Steel Fabricator SW Site Workers HS CDM co-ordinator (Health Safety) Estimated No. of days required to complete the task. Personnel resource abbreviation Breakdown of time and resources example Detailed name of the task from task list on previous page Shortened task name as it will appear in schedules PM 0 Days Existing masonry strength investigated/tested for ability to take loads Existing Masonry Test SU 7 Days Building survey to set out the masonry piers and levels Building Survey SU 3 Days Steelwork design required based on loads to be imposed /spans between piers Steelwork Design SE 4 Days Timber floor joists and edge restraints designed Timber Design SE 3 Days Fabrication drawings completed and issued for tender Fabrication Drgs SE 3 Days Steel Tender period Steel Tender Period FB 7 Days Fabricator chosen and contract signed for steelwork Fabrication Contracts PM N/A Steel fabrication commences Steel Fabrication FB 15 Days Method statements to complete (Health and Safety) Method Statements PM 2 Days Method statement approved by CDM co-ordinator CDM Approval HS 5 Days Erection of scaffolding around piers Scaffolding SW 3 Days Existing general masonry repair to piers Masonry Repair SW 2 Days Masonry removal for padstone and bearing end of beams Masonry Removal SW 2 Days Padstone installation (Pouring of the in-situ concrete padstone) Padstone Installation SW 2 Days Concrete padstone curing Concrete Curing N/A 3 Days Ordering of steel installation equipment (crane rig or cherry picker) Plant Order PM N/A Steel delivery to site Steel Delivery FB 1 Day Steel erection and fixing Steel Erection SW 2 Days Timber cut on site to fit Cutting Timber SW 1 Days Timber floor joists fitted Timber Joists SW 4 Days Timber edge restraints fixed Timber Restraints SW 3 Days Plywood cut to size Cutting Plywood SW 1 Day Plywood decking fitted Plywood Deck Fixed SW 1 Day Scaffolding around piers removed Scaffolding Removal SW 1 Day Project handed over to client for fit out Project Hand Over PM N/A As built drawings records sent to Building Control As Built Records PM 1 Day Project Completed Project Completed N/A N/A Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) The WBS communicates a clear view of the total scope of the project, providing a logical and coherent statement of what the project comprises of. The WBS is neither over-simplified or overly complex. It is not a project plan or a project schedule, and it is not a chronological listing. A coding system is implemented to enable cost, schedule, technical and other data to be cross referenced across a project. The project manager is to structure the project work into WBS elements that are: Definable can be described and easily understood by project participants. Manageable a unit of work where specific responsibility/authority can be assigned. Estimate duration and cost can be estimated in terms of resources. Independent minimum dependence on other on-going elements (i.e. assignable to a single task), and clearly distinguishable from other work packages. Integrate integrates with other project work elements and with higher level cost estimates and schedules to include the entire project. Measurable can be used to measure progress; has start and completion dates and measurable milestones. Adaptable sufficiently flexible so the addition/elimination of work scope can be accommodated in the WBS framework. On the following pages are two different forms of the WBS. A standard tabular view used for quick reference / easy production, and the more familiar tree structure view; used to show more clearly the flow of tasks and their relationships. Gantt Charts A common technique for scheduling construction activities is the Gantt chart, named after the developer Henry Laurence Gantt, as mentioned in the introduction section. The Gantt chart lists the construction tasks that need to be performed down a single column, generally in the order in which they are to be carried out, along with a second column indicating the length of time required to complete each task. At the top of the chart, dates for the construction project are noted in a horizontal row. To the right of each task a line/bar indicates the starting date to the completion date for that task. All tasks in the first column are charted in this manner across the rows of the chart, with the bar for each task beginning at the earliest possible starting date. Many tasks must be completed in sequence, requiring the completion of one activity before the next can be started, although some tasks may be completed independently of other work and can be charted when the work is most convenient. The charting of activities allows the project manager to identify critical points in the construction schedule and provides the opportunity to adjust the tasks to meet schedule demands. Gantt charting is useful for small projects that must be completed in a linear manner, or one step after the other, and for contractors who have small crews and can only engage in one activity at a time. Most Gantt charts these days are constructed using computer scheduling programs. Templates provide a listing of typical construction tasks so the project manager only has to insert the duration of the work; scheduling programs have advanced to the point where data about the activities, such as duration and sequence, can be provided and the entire chart generated. For my worked example I have used Microsoft Project. On the following page is a Gantt chart, listing the project tasks and scheduling dates of completion; noting how each task is related and creating a program of works in real time, with dates and deadlines throughout the working week. It outlines which tasks are reliant on others and also which can run concurrently or have no specific scheduling requirements. For example the steel needs to be designed and ordered before it can be delivered to site and the padstones it sits on would need to be in place and the concrete cured before the steelwork could be erected. To maximise time efficiency these tasks will run concurrently (i.e. padstones can be installed while steel is fabricated and before it is delivered to site) these links between tasks can be seen on the Gantt chart. Critical Path Analysis (CPA) Similar to the Gantt chart the critical path analysis is a project-management technique that lays out all the activities needed to complete a task, the time it will take to complete each activity and the relationships between the activities. Also called the critical path method, critical path analysis can help predict whether a project can be completed on time and can be used to predict problems within the program both before starting it and as it progresses, to keep the projects completion on track and ensure that deliverables are ready on time. Advancing from the Gantt chart on the next page is the project critical path (highlighted in red on the subsequent page). Any fluctuations to these dates would have a knock on effect to the overall programming of the project meaning time would need to be made up elsewhere on the remaining tasks, or possible weekend overtime working would need to be implemented to ensure the project was completed by the March 29th deadline. Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) As projects become even more complex and unpredictable, more complex scheduling methods become appropriate. Methods such as the program evaluation and review technique combines critical path analysis with probability to identify completion dates that are optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely. Such scheduling techniques are not applicable to every project, but may be used in large construction projects that are likely to be influenced by nature or human factors. Examples include projects that are to be completed during unseasonable weather conditions or grading in an area that may be delayed due to unknown underground conditions. PERT planning involves the following steps that are described below. Identify the specific activities and milestones. The activities are the tasks required to complete a project. The milestones are the events marking the beginning and the end of one or more activities. Using a work break down structure is helpful to list the tasks that in later steps can be expanded to include information on sequence and duration. Determine the proper sequence of the activities. This step may be combined with the task identification step above since the activity sequence is evident for some tasks. Other tasks may require more analysis to determine the exact order in which they must be performed. Construct a network diagram. Using the activity sequence information, a network diagram can be drawn showing the sequence of the serial and parallel activities. Each activity represents a node in the network, and the arrows represent the relation between activities. Software packages simplify this step by automatically converting tabular activity information into a network diagram. Estimate the time required for each activity. Days are a commonly used unit of time for activity completion, but any consistent unit of time can be used. PERT has the ability to deal with uncertainty in task completion time. For each activity, the model usually includes three time estimates: Optimistic time generally the shortest time in which the activity can realistically be completed, also referred to as the best time. Most likely time the completion time having the highest probability. Note that this time is different from the expected time, (as explained below). Pessimistic time the longest time that an activity might require, also referred to as the worst time. PERT can also assume a beta probability distribution for the time estimates. Expected time For a beta distribution, the expected time for each activity can be approximated using the following weighted average: Expected time = ( Optimistic + 4 x Most likely + Pessimistic ) / 6 This expected time is not always used on the network diagram. On the following page I have used Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) scheduling to construct a network diagram that estimates; best, worst and most likely time periods for each task. While also determining the proper sequence of the activities with a critical path and milestones.

Concrete Stitches In Segmental Prestressed Concrete Bridges

Concrete Stitches In Segmental Prestressed Concrete Bridges The in-situ concrete stitches of a segmental prestressed concrete bridge are locations of potential weakness for the entire bridge deck but relatively little work has been carried out in this area. In the current practice, these in-situ stitches are usually designed to be capable of sustaining considerable sagging moment but only minimal hogging moment. Therefore, failure of these joints is possible under exceptional circumstances when the hogging moment is high, which may potentially trigger a progressive collapse. In the light of this, an extensive experimental study on the structural behaviour of the in-situ concrete stitch under different combinations of parameters has been carried out. Two types of specimens are tested in the study, namely the beam specimens and the shear specimens, which both consist of two precast units joined together by in-situ concrete stitch of variable widths. The beam specimens are internally prestressed and subject to different combinations of bending m oment, shear, and prestressing force; while the shear specimens are either internally or externally prestressed and subject to direct shear only. Shear keys are provided to the stitch of several shear specimens to examine the contribution of the keys to the shear strength. The effects of various parameters on the strength of the stitch and ductility of the specimens are investigated. Detailed coverage on the experimental programme and the results of the experimental analyses are presented in this paper. KEYWORDS Experimental study, joints, prestressed concrete, segmental bridges, in-situ stitches. INTRODUCTION Precast segmental concrete bridges have gained popularity over the past 40 years due to their efficiency in coping with difficult site conditions. One of the most commonly used method of constructing this type of bridges is the balanced cantilever method, which essentially involves sequentially extending precast segments outwards from each pier in a balanced manner. A gap of 100 to 200 mm in width is usually provided around the mid-span location between the last two approaching segments to facilitate erection. In-situ concrete is then cast to stitch the segments together, thus making the bridge deck continuous. Under the current practice, the in-situ concrete stitches are usually designed to be capable of sustaining considerable sagging moment but its hogging moment capacity and shear resistance are only nominal. Failure of these joints can only occur under exceptional scenarios when hogging moment is high. However if it really occurs, this could potentially trigger a progressive collapse mechanism because the concrete stitches are locations of potential weakness. Studies on the joints of segmental bridges have been conducted in the past (Buyukozturk et al., 1990; Hewson, 1992; Zhou et al., 2005; Issa and Abdalla, 2007) but the joints studied are either dry or epoxy joints that exists between precast segments and not the in-situ concrete stitching joint that is of interest. As relatively little research work on this area has been conducted, understanding of the actual behaviour of in-situ stitches is limited. In the light of this, an extensive experimental study has been carried out to investigate the behaviour of the in-situ concrete stitches. The study mainly involves a series of loading test on specimens that are comprised of precast units connected by in-situ concrete stitches. The stitch is subjected to different combinations of internal forces by applying loading at different locations along the specimen. Various parameters of the specimens are varied to examine their effect on the strength of the in-situ stitch and its failure mode. These parameters include the width of the stitch, the grade of concrete, the prestressing force, the provision of shear keys, the type of tendon (bonded or unbonded) and the type of prestressing (external or internal). Although the experimental programme is still ongoing, based on the analysis of the current experimental results, several preliminary conclusions have been drawn and are presented in this paper. The experimental programme is also covered i n detail in this paper. TESTING PROGRAMME The experimental study involves load testing on two types of specimens, namely (i) the beam specimens, and (ii) the shear specimens. The beam specimens are used to study the behaviour of the in-situ concrete stitches subjected to different combinations of bending moment and shear, while the shear specimens are used to study the behaviour of the stitches under direct shear. Both the beam and shear specimens consist of two precast units joined together by the in-situ concrete stitches. Control beam specimens have also been fabricated where the entire beam is continuously cast without any stitch along the beam. Typically, the stitch is cast one week after the casting of the precast units. Loading test on the specimens is performed using a testing frame after 28 days from the day of casting of the stitch. Linear variable displacement transducers (LVDTs) are mounted on the specimens at various locations of interest to measure the displacements at these locations. Configuration of the Beam Specimens The length of the beam specimen is 1400 mm with the in-situ concrete stitch at either the mid-span of the beam or offset from the mid-span depending on the internal force that the stitch is subjected to. An actual beam specimen is illustrated in Figure 1. Three cases of internal force at the stitch are examined, namely (i) pure bending moment, (ii) pure shear, and (iii) both moment and shear. The loading test setup to induce the three cases of internal force condition is illustrated in Figure 2. Tendon (a) Case of pure bending moment (b) Case of pure shear (c) Case of moment and shear The section of the beam has an overall depth of 200 mm and a width of 150 mm. A 7-wire steel strand with a nominal area of 100 mm2 is used as the prestressing tendon. The tendon is placed at a depth of 133 mm for Case (i) and Case (ii), and 100 mm for Case (iii). For all beam specimens, Grade 60 concrete is used for both the precast units and the stitch. No shear key is provided to the stitch. Unbonded tendon with an effective prestressing force of 100 kN is applied to all beam specimens. Since the precast units and the in-situ concrete stitch are cast at different time, construction joints exist in the specimen. Prior to casting the in-situ concrete stitch, the laitance at the construction joint area on the surface of the precast unit is removed and the area is roughened by a needle gun until the aggregates are exposed. The construction joint is then wetted for at least 12 hours before casting by laying towels that are completely saturated with water over the joint area. Configuration of the Shear Specimens The shear specimens consist of two L-shaped precast units with the in-situ concrete stitch joining the two units as illustrated in Figure 3. The out-of-plane dimension of the specimen is 200 mm. The specimens are either made of Grade 60 or Grade 45 concrete and both the precast units and the stitch are made of the same grade of concrete. The stitch is subject to a prestress of either 1 MPa or 5 MPa, and stitch widths of 100 mm and 200 mm are examined. The shear specimens are designed in such a way that they are capable of simulating the shear behaviour of box girders of different web configurations. The web of a box girder may or may not be provided with shear keys and some parts of the web may or may not have prestressing tendon running through. Therefore, the specimens are either internally prestressed by bonded tendon or externally prestressed by a clamping device to provide the prestressing force acting on the stitch, while the stitch is either plain or provided with shear keys. For those specimens with shear keys, either one large key with a depth of 50 mm or two smaller keys with a depth of 30 mm are provided. Examples of an externally prestressed specimen with two shear keys and an internally prestressed specimen without shear key are illustrated in Figures 3(a) and 3(b) respectively. For the case where the specimen is internally prestressed, a 7-wire steel strand is used. Prior to casting of the stitch, light roughening is provided at the construction joint area on the precast units to remove the laitance. Similar to the beam specimens, the joint area is wetted for at least 12 hours before casting the stitch. (a) Stitch with shear keys; externally prestressed (b) Stitch without shear key; internally prestressed Figure 4. Examples of setup for shear specimen RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Beam Specimens The load-displacement relationships of the beam specimens tested are plotted in Figures 5(a), 5(b) and 5(c) for the case of the in-situ concrete stitch subjected to pure bending moment (Case (i)), pure shear (Case (ii)), and a combination of moment and shear (Case (iii)), respectively. For the specimens of Cases (b) and (c), only the results of the specimens with 50 mm stitch and 100 mm stitch are available to date. Ductile behaviour is observed for the beam specimens of Case (i). Opening of the construction joints occurs at a load of between 70 kN and 80 kN, while the final mode of failure is concrete crushing in the compression zone at mid-span, as illustrated in Figure 6(a). From Figure 5(a), it is evident that the peak strength of the specimens without stitch (i.e. the control specimen) and those with stitch are approximately the same. The difference in the peak strength between the specimen with a 50 mm stitch and that with a 100 mm stitch is marginal. When the stitch is subject to pure shear, the behaviour of the specimen is brittle. As the peak strength is reached, a large diagonal crack suddenly forms across the stitch (Figure 6(b)) and the strength drops abruptly. It can be seen from Figure 5(b) that regardless of the size of the stitch, the peak strengths of the specimens are nearly the same. (a) Case (i) (b) Case (ii) (c) Case (iii) From Figure 5(c), it is evident that the behaviour of the specimens of Case (c) is ductile. Failure of the specimens is localized at the point of loading where there is significant cracking and crushing of concrete; while at the stitch, slight opening of the construction joint is observed and several diagonal cracks are found propagating from the construction joint towards the point of loading. The condition of the beam at failure is illustrated in Figure 6(c). For the specimen with a 50 mm stitch, the peak strength is approximately 100 kN, while that for the specimen with a 100 mm stitch is approximately 110 kN. The peak strengths of the two specimens are relatively close to each other. The results suggest that the width of the stitch has minimal effect on the strength of the stitch within the maximum width of stitch studied. The ductility of the specimens is also not affected by the width of the stitch but rather by how the specimen is loaded. (a) Case (i) (b) Case (ii) (c) Case (iii) Shear Specimens The load-displacement relationships of the five shear specimens tested are plotted in Figure 7. The shear displacement is the relative vertical displacement between the two precast units. All shear specimens are identified as explained below. Using E-K(M)-100-60-2 as an example, the first field represents the type of prestressing used, with E indicating external prestressing; the second field represents whether the stitch is plain or with shear keys, with K(M) indicating stitch with two shear keys, K(S) indicating stitch with single shear keys, and P indicating plain stitch with no shear key; the third field indicates the width of the stitch in mm; the fourth field indicates the grade of concrete in MPa; and the fifth field indicates the prestress applied to the stitch in MPa. Therefore, a specimen identified as E-K(M)-100-60-2 is composed of Grade 60 concrete with external prestress of 2 MPa applied and two shear keys are provided to the stitch that has a width of 100 mm. The specimens with plain stitch are first discussed. From Figure 7, it can be seen that the behaviour is largely the same for both specimens E-P-100-60-1 and E-P-200-60-1. The peak strengths of the two specimens are between 50 to 60 kN, which once again demonstrates that the width of a plain stitch has little effect on its strength. It is evident that as the prestressing level is increased to 5 MPa (E-P-100-60-5), the peak load-carrying capacity is significantly increased to approximately 220 kN. Therefore, the level of prestressing has marked influence on the load-carrying capacity of the stitch. For specimens with plain stitch, the failure mode is characterized by sudden occurrence of sliding along one or more of the construction joints. Upon failure, the strength of the stitch is mainly contributed by friction from sliding between the surfaces of precast unit and in-situ stitch. As observed from the load-displacement curves, a long smooth plateau is evident in the post peak range for specimens E-P-100-60-1 and E-P-200-60-1, which can be modelled as Coulomb friction. For specimen E-P-100-60-5, the post-peak behaviour as shown in Figure 7 is not as smoothed. Since the prestressing force is substantially higher, the resistance against sliding by the aggregates along the construction joint becomes very large. As the applied load is large enough to overcome that resistance, sudden slippage along the construction joint occurs and the load drops. Subsequently the resistance builds up again and sudden slippage occurs again when the resistance is overcome by the applied load. Therefore the post-peak branch of specimen E-P-100-60-5 has a zig-zag shape. This observation also implies that the roughness of the construction joint should have strong effect on the post-peak strength of plain stitches, which will be examined in due course. Since the post-peak strength of the stitch is mainly contributed by frictional forces, ductility can only be maintained if sufficient pre stressing force is provided. Therefore the presence of adequate prestressing force beyond the peak strength of the stitch is crucial in preventing sudden loss of strength in the stitch. Up to this stage, only two shear specimens with shear keys have been tested. However, the results from the test have already given indication that the behaviour of the stitches with shear keys is quite different from the behaviour of those without shear keys. Upon reaching the peak strength, the stitch of specimen E-K(M)-100-60-1 fails suddenly in a brittle manner by cracking diagonally across the stitch as illustrated in Figure 8 and an abrupt drop in load can be seen in Figure 7. This behaviour is much different from that of the specimens with plain stitches in which the post-peak behaviour is characterized by a long plateau in the load-displacement relationship. This type of stitch has little reserve strength upon reaching the peak load-carrying capacity. No brittle failure is observed for the specimen with one large key and a wider stitch, i.e. specimen E-K(S)-200-60-1. In fact, the specimen was not loaded to failure during the experiment but was stopped at a load of approximately 190 kN because at that load, the prestressing force was increased to a level that had almost reached the capacity of the load cell used to measure the prestressing force. However, at a load of 190 kN, continuous crack had already formed along the construction joint and there was sliding between the precast unit and the stitch along the joint but the stitch still remained intact. From Figure 7, it can be seen that the peak load-carrying capacity of specimens E-K(M)-100-60-2 and E-P-100-60-5 are approximately the same. This observation seems to imply same level of load-carrying capacity can be achieved yet less amount of prestressing can be applied by adding shear keys to the stitch. As aforementioned, there is an increase in prestressing force as load is applied to the specimens with shear keys. This behaviour is caused by dilation in the stitch as the shearing load is applied. Dilation is taken as the displacement between the precast units measured along the horizontal centreline of the stitch. The effect of dilation is much more pronounced for specimens with keyed stitches than those with plain stitches. The relationships between shear displacement and dilation of the various specimens are plotted in Figure 9. For the specimens with plain stitch, dilation is relatively insignificant compared to the dilation in the specimens with keyed stitch. The stress in the tendon can be increased due to dilation. The effect of dilation on tendon stress is rather insignificant for a segmental bridge with unbonded tendon because the strain increase due to dilation will be averaged along the entire length of tendon between end anchorages. However, for segmental bridges prestr essed by bonded tendon, dilation may cause substantial increase in strain at the location of the stitch, which can potentially overstress the tendon. Specimens with stitch prestressed by bonded tendon will be tested in the near future and the effect of dilation on tendon stress will be investigated in due course. CONCLUSIONS Extensive experimental studies have been carried out to investigate the behaviour of in-situ concrete stitches subject to a combination of internal forces and subject to direct shear by conducting a series of loading tests on the beam specimens and shear specimens respectively. Detailed coverage on the setup of the specimens and load testing has been included in this paper. Based on the results of the tests conducted so far, several preliminary conclusions can be drawn: The width of plain in-situ concrete stitch does not appear to have significant effect on the peak-load carrying capacity of the stitch regardless of the combination of internal forces that it is subjected to. The strength of the in-situ concrete stitch is strongly influenced by the level of prestressing applied and the strength of the stitch increases as the level of prestressing increases. For plain in-situ concrete stitches, failure occurs along the construction joint. Strength in the stitch is still present beyond the peak strength and it is mainly contributed by the frictional force from the sliding between the surfaces of precast unit and stitch. By providing shear keys to the concrete stitch, the level of prestressing can be reduced to achieve the same strength as those stitches without key. However, this may result in a brittle failure. For keyed concrete stitches, the amount of dilation is significantly higher than that of plain stitches. For segmental bridges prestressed by bonded tendon, this may have marked effect on the stresses of the tendons. With further testing on the specimens being carried out in the near future, it is expected that more definitive conclusions can be drawn on the behaviour of the in-situ concrete stitches. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The study undertaken is supported by Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (RGC Project No. HKU 710207E).

Imagry in the Fall of the House of Usher :: essays papers

Imagry in the Fall of the House of Usher Imagery in "The Fall of the House of Usher" The description of the landscape in any story is important as it creates a vivid imagery of the scene and helps to develop the mood. Edgar Allan Poe is a master at using imagery to improve the effects of his stories. He tends to use the landscapes to symbolize some important aspect of the story. Also, he makes use of the landscape to produce a supernatural effect and to induce horror. In particular, Poe makes great use of these tools in "The Fall of the House of Usher." This story depends on the portrayal of the house itself to create a certain atmosphere and to relate to the Usher family. In "The Fall of the House of Usher," Edgar Allan Poe uses the landscape to develop an atmosphere of horror and to create corollary to the Usher family. Poe uses the life-like characteristics of the house as a device for giving the house a supernatural presence. The house is described as having somewhat supernatural characteristics. The windows appear to be "vacant" and "eye-like" (1462). The strange nature of the house is further explained as around the mansion, "†¦there hung an atmosphere peculiar to themselves and their immediate vicinity." (1462). This demonstrates that the house and its surroundings have an unusual and bizarre existence. Upon entering the house, the narrator views some objects, such as the tapestries on the walls and the trophies, fill him with a sense of superstition. He describes the trophies as "phantasmagoric" (1462). He further explains that the house and the contents were the cause of his feelings. He describes his superstition one night, "I endeavored to believe that much, if not all of what I felt, was due to the phantasmagoric influence of the gloomy furniture of the room†¦" (1468). Hence, Poe makes use of the house to create a supernatural effect. Likewise, Poe describes the house to create a terrifying effect. "The Fall of the House of Usher" is a horror story. In order to develop a mood to get the reader frightened, Poe must portray the setting of the story. The house is described initially by the narrator, who sees the image of the house as a skull or death’s head looming out of the dead. He is not sure what to think and comments of the properties of the old house: "What was it, I paused to think, what was it that so unnerved me in the contemplation of the house of Usher?

An Analysis of Das Boot Essay -- Das Boot Essays

What is it that makes the film, "Das Boot", stand out in the plethora of war movies? Why was this film, with subtitles and about German World War 2 soldiers, popular enough in America to earn six Academy Award nominations? One possible answer is the characters. Like so many other epics, the sensation of viewing pleasure goes beyond the intense plot and into the intricacy and intimacy of the building blocks of every story: the characters. Director Wolfgang Petersen's mastery is in bringing the viewer into that unfortunate submarine, makes everyone a participant in the horror as one of the characters, creating the feeling of no escape. Then, once Petersen has the viewer "in" the submarine, he presents us with a duality in character type; there are men determined to salvage the mission and thwart disaster, as well as others who are helpless in helping their comrades, doomed to be insufficient and bothersome. Once Petersen has portrayed this conflict, it is easy to see how the level of tension is so high in the submarine. The film begins with the submarine crew drunk and jovial, attempting to enjoy their final moments before their departure. Knowing that the odds of returning alive are minimal, the men appear to throwing their intuition to the stars as they frolic foolishly and even tastelessly. Petersen is presenting the viewer with a group of rowdy boys full of life and indifferent to their future, in stark contrast with the men who arrive at the Mediterranean port later in the film. At this moment, all the men are equals, ready to confront the sea and serve their country. While in the submarine, the nature of these men changes. No longer are they a homogeneous group; rather a number of... ... thing he does like his attentiveness to Hitler's speeches, his meticulous eating habits, and promenading in his Nazi attire, all annoy the crew. His very presence is a distraction to a crew that needs total focus. Although he appears as diligent as the others, his style is different, his attitude is too unnecessary, and his demeanor is too inappropriate for the submarine. This duality is a large component of the tension that resides in the boat. Peterson seems to be making a contrast he to encourage the already mounting tension. Combine this with the life-death aspect of the mission and incredible stress is inevitable. It is a ship mostly full of ardorous men, but the few who don't fit are harpoons in the ship's side. Pederson's film is quite intense and it has to be said that this duality in character portrayal enhances this aspect of the movie.

Black American Music History Essay

First of all, there is many different types of African American music but im going to talk about three in particular which are slave spirituals, blues, and the more common rap/hip-hop. First slave spirituals is a type of religious song originating among black slaves in the American south. It was famous for the reason that the lyrics of negro spirituals were tightly linked with the lives of their authors†¦. slaves! While work songs only dealt with their daily life, spirituals were inspired by the message of Jesus Christ and his Good News (Gospel) of the Bible, â€Å"You can be saved†! They are different from hymns and psalms, because they were a way of sharing the hard condition of being a slave. Another type of music there is are the blues. Blues is a type of folk song devised by Black Americans at the beginning of the 20th century. Blues was so important to the African Slaves because it was a sort of code, how they told stories that had things to do with their owner and everyday life. Lastly is the most common now in time some people know it as rap others as hip hop but it is the style and fashion of African American music. Hip hop is important to African American culture because it originated from it all started when blues and jazz crossed over and musicians started making beats which were call bebop. (Well maybe not the kids but the adults call it that). All music we know today it was all based on African American music many people do not know the importance of music was to the slaves some say it was the only thing that gave them hope. Why is music important to our culture? There is no objective answer to this question. The importance of music is different in every individual’s life. It inspires people and allows us to get in touch with our emotions in a way that is unique. For those amongst us who find it difficult to express ourselves, music can evoke reactions. Your mood can change from dark and depressed to elated and delirious happiness with just the selection of the right track and a hit of the play button. Music works wonders on creating a certain atmosphere. You can use music to liven up a boring party or to create a romantic ambiance. Music is important to all of us and some fail to realize the importance music is to the history of everybody not just one race but to everybody. Who knew music was so important from rock to classical music is all around us. In Conclusion, did Elvis Presley steal African American music and is Eminem doing the same? There has been people that believe that Elvis stole black music. But, there have been other people that say that he was inspired but black music but never stole it. There has also been rumors about Eminem is stealing black music. But he mentioned in interview that rapping isn’t meant just for one race is for everybody. Ha ha, and he’s basically right! Music it lives in all of us.

Children’s development of emotional self-regulation Essay

The early years of a child’s life are the most important in terms of their general well-being, their emotional and social development, and their physical, intellectual and emotional growth. Children develop at different paces and a very high proportion of what they learn takes place in the first five to seven years of life. What happens in the home is extremely important to development in early childhood. There is also a growing perception that this is a time when children are most open to high quality care and learning experiences. Children’s development of emotional self-regulation is important for many aspects of their health and wellbeing, including their ability to tolerate frustration, curbs aggressive impulses, delay gratification, and express emotions in socially acceptable ways. Children who are able to regulate their own emotions are better able to interact with their peers, whereas poor emotion regulation in preschool-aged children has been related to higher levels of externalizing behaviors. Children’s deficits in the ability to self-regulate their own behavior have been linked to rapid weight gain and obesity in middle childhood. Children who are good in self-regulation will have better relationships with their teachers and classmates. Read more:Â  Personal factors that affect child development essay You will also do better academically. You will have the motivation to enjoy school and the people around you. You will be confident in the way you talk and act in front of people. This skill will help you to grow up with the proper manners and attitude towards other people. You will gain more knowledge in interaction and conversing with different types of people. Parents play an important role in children’s development of self-regulation of emotions in the early years. At birth, infants lack control over their emotional arousal. Instead, infants’ emotional arousal is regulated by their own biological needs and how parents respond to those needs. Parents comfort infants when they express negative emotions as well as arouse positive emotions in their infants through play and other stimulating interactions. For example, if a one-month-old baby experiences an aversive stimulus, the infant’s crying signals to the parent that he or she is upset. Parents’ actions such as calming or soothing the infant serve to regulate the child’s emotions. Therefore, young infants rely heavily on their parents to regulate their emotions. As children age, they require less assistance in regulating emotions. For example, a four-year-old might self-sooth in response to an aversive stimulus instead of immediately crying. Throughout the first year of life, infants gradually increase their ability to control their own emotional states and they begin to self-regulate emotions before the second half-year of life. Individual differences in children’s abilities to regulate their emotions are apparent by this time, and whether they intend to or not, parents substantially influence these individual differences. Parents can help their infants and toddlers regulate their emotions by learning to say no from the very start! No means no. If there is one thing I cannot stand and I see very often is when a parent cannot say no to their children. Stop being so damn afraid of your child, let them throw a tantrum, they’ll get over it! I cannot express that enough. Discipline is the system in which parents guide and teach their children. This word is often confused with the term punishment. The purpose of discipline is to teach children the difference between right and wrong, to incorporate a sense of limits and appropriate behavior. Teaching discipline is a challenging task for parents and caregivers and not one that is taught overnight. It takes many years for most children to be able to achieve self-control. Also, as children grow and develop, so do the types of things that they must be taught. The method of discipline must grow and change with the child. Caregivers need to be flexible because of changes in children and their environment as children mature and grow. Time out is a very effective form of mild punishment. Time-out literally means time-out from all the things the child enjoys, for example – rewards, parent’s attention, reinforcement, toys, music and all other interesting activities. Time-out has two major goals. The immediate goal is the stop the problem behavior as quickly as possible and the long-term goal is to help the child learn self-discipline. The good thing about time-out is that it does not emotionally harm the child and it models calm and good behavior on the parent’s part. Time-out works best with children age two to twelve. This method should be considered with certain types of behaviors including impulsive, aggressive, hostile and emotional behaviors. Time-out does not work to get a child to begin doing a behavior, but it is very effective in stopping bad behaviors. Time-out can be used initially with one or two target behaviors and once the parent and child get used to the technique it can be expanded to more problem behaviors. The child should be placed in time-out for one minute for every year of life. For example a 5 year old would sit in time out for five minutes. You should use a small portable timer to remind the child when the time-out is over. Once the timer rings parents and or caregivers should ask the child why they went to time-out. Once they produce the answer the parent drops the issue and goes about their daily activities as usual. Time-out is not designed to make a child feel bad or humiliated it should be used to instill that when they act a certain way they will be disciplined for it and take those minutes in time-out to help them realize for themselves that what they did was wrong. Scolding is another common form of mild punishment that should be used by parents. When scolding a child for bad behavior it is important to move close to the child, maintaining good eye contact, being stern, and expressing your feelings while naming the undesirable behavior. It is important to be brief and calm, showing disapproval for the behavior not the child. Another type of mild punishment is natural consequences. Some examples include not wearing an appropriate outfit to school and getting sent to the principal’s office or being careless in not packing a lunch and being hungry at lunchtime. Logical consequences occur for behaviors that do not have natural consequences. Some examples include not eating all of your dinner and then not having any dessert; or riding the bicycle in the street and having the bike taken away for three days or in the case of my 8 years old daughter, rushing through her homework just so she can play on her iPad or watch TV. I, in return take away her iPad and TV privilege’s until she realizes that taking her time and doing her homework without rushing through it, rewards her with her favorite activities such as playing on her iPad, watching TV, etc. Self-regulation in early development is influenced by a child’s relationships with the important adults in her life. As parents and caregivers, providing the experiences, support, and encouragement that help very young children learn to self-regulate is a critical element in quality care.